Tag: Southern Cone

South America is a continent of remarkable geographic, historical, and cultural diversity. From the Caribbean coasts of Colombia and Venezuela to the subantarctic regions of Argentina and Chile, it contains tropical rainforests, deserts, mountain plateaus, wetlands, grasslands, glaciers, and some of the largest cities in the Southern Hemisphere.

With an area of approximately 17.8 million square kilometres, South America is the world’s fourth-largest continent. It is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes run along its western edge, while the Amazon Basin occupies a vast portion of its interior. A detailed overview is available in the Encyclopaedia Britannica guide to South America.

South America comprises 12 sovereign countries:

• Argentina
• Bolivia
• Brazil
• Chile
• Colombia
• Ecuador
• Guyana
• Paraguay
• Peru
• Suriname
• Uruguay
• Venezuela

French Guiana is geographically located in South America but is not an independent country. It is an overseas department and region of France.

The countries of South America share major historical processes, including Indigenous civilisations, European colonisation, African slavery, independence movements, migration, military dictatorships, democratic transitions, and the extraction of natural resources. However, each nation developed its own political institutions, cultural traditions, economic structures, and relationship with the environment.

This guide introduces the history, geography, languages, economies, and cultures of all 12 South American countries and connects readers to SUDAME’s in-depth national guides.

How Many Countries Are There in South America?

South America has 12 independent countries. All are members of the United Nations and administer their own territories, institutions, and international relations.

The countries vary enormously in size and population. Brazil occupies almost half of the continent and is its most populous nation. Suriname is the smallest sovereign South American country by land area.

Brazil had an estimated population of approximately 212.8 million in 2025. By comparison, Guyana had about 836,000 inhabitants and Suriname approximately 640,000.

The Britannica map of South American countries and capitals provides a useful political overview of the continent.

Are South America and Latin America the Same?

South America and Latin America are related concepts, but they are not interchangeable.

South America is primarily a geographic definition. It refers to the continent south and east of the Panama-Colombia border, between the Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Drake Passage.

Latin America is a historical, cultural, and linguistic region. It generally includes territories in the Americas where languages derived from Latin, especially Spanish, Portuguese, and French, are widely spoken.

Latin America therefore also includes:

• Mexico
• Central America
• several Caribbean nations and territories
• parts of the French-speaking Americas

Guyana and Suriname unquestionably belong to South America, but they may be excluded from strictly linguistic definitions of Latin America because their official languages are English and Dutch.

International organisations generally include both countries within the broader region known as Latin America and the Caribbean, which had an estimated population of about 666.6 million in 2025.

The Geography of South America

South America is roughly triangular: broad in the north and progressively narrower toward Cape Horn in the south.

Its extreme geographic variation has created a large number of biomes. The continent can be divided into three major physical systems:

• mountains and highlands
• river basins
• coastal plains

The National Geographic overview of South America’s physical geography explores these systems in detail.

The Andes

The Andes run along the western edge of South America and form the world’s longest continental mountain system. The range extends for approximately 8,850 kilometres and contains hundreds of peaks above 4,500 metres.

The mountains have influenced:

• settlement patterns
• agriculture
• transport
• political organisation
• Indigenous cultures
• mining
• water availability

Important pre-Columbian societies, including Tiwanaku, Wari, and the Inca Empire, developed in the Andean world.

The Amazon Basin

The Amazon Basin extends across Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, and French Guiana.

It contains the world’s largest tropical rainforest and most extensive river system. Its forests regulate rainfall, store carbon, support extraordinary biodiversity, and provide territories and resources for numerous Indigenous peoples.

The Atacama Desert

The Atacama Desert lies mainly in northern Chile and is one of the driest regions on Earth.

It also contains major mineral resources, including copper and lithium. Its high altitude, clear skies, and extremely low atmospheric humidity make it one of the world’s most important locations for astronomical observation.

The Pampas

The Pampas are fertile grasslands extending across central Argentina, Uruguay, and parts of southern Brazil.

Their soils and temperate climate encouraged agriculture, cattle ranching, exports of cereals and meat, and the development of some of the continent’s most prosperous farming regions.

The Pantanal

The Pantanal is one of the world’s largest tropical wetlands. It is shared mainly by Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay.

Its ecosystems support jaguars, caimans, capybaras, giant otters, and hundreds of bird species. The region is increasingly threatened by fires, drought, agricultural expansion, and climate change.

Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego

Patagonia includes southern Argentina and Chile. It contains steppe, mountains, lakes, glaciers, fjords, forests, and Atlantic and Pacific coastlines.

Tierra del Fuego forms the southern inhabited edge of the continent and is politically divided between Argentina and Chile.

The Main Regions of South America

Political borders do not always correspond with the continent’s larger geographic and cultural areas.

The Andean Region

The core Andean countries are generally considered to be:

• Bolivia
• Colombia
• Ecuador
• Peru

The Andes also extend through Argentina, Chile, and Venezuela.

The region retains a strong presence of Quechua, Aymara, and many other Indigenous peoples.

The Southern Cone

The Southern Cone generally includes:

• Argentina
• Chile
• Uruguay

Some definitions also include Paraguay and southern Brazil.

The region has mostly temperate climates, large urban populations, agricultural and industrial economies, and a significant historical influence from European migration.

The Amazon Region

The Amazon is not confined to a single nation. It crosses several borders and includes rainforest, rivers, cities, Indigenous territories, farming areas, mines, and transport corridors.

The Guianas

The Guianas are:

• Guyana
• Suriname
• French Guiana

They were colonised by different European powers and maintain distinctive linguistic, historical, and cultural connections with the Caribbean.

The Río de la Plata Region

Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay are connected by the Paraná, Paraguay, and Uruguay river systems.

Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and Asunción belong to a historical regional space shaped by trade, migration, war, music, language, and shared cultural traditions.

Argentina

Argentina is South America’s second-largest country and one of the largest nations in the world. Its territory extends from the subtropical north to Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, and the South Atlantic.

The capital, Buenos Aires, lies on the Río de la Plata and is one of Latin America’s major cultural, political, and publishing centres.

Geography

Argentina includes:

• the Andes
• the Pampas
• Patagonia
• subtropical forests
• deserts
• wine-producing valleys
• major rivers
• glaciers

Historical Development

Before Spanish colonisation, the territory was inhabited by many peoples, including Diaguita, Guaraní, Tehuelche, Querandí, and communities connected to the Mapuche world.

The May Revolution of 1810 began the independence process, and the Congress of Tucumán declared independence on 9 July 1816.

Nineteenth-century politics were marked by conflicts between centralists and federalists. The Constitution of 1853 provided the foundations of the modern federal state.

Immigration, Peronism, and Democracy

Millions of European immigrants arrived between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Italian and Spanish migration profoundly influenced language, food, urban life, and political culture.

In the twentieth century, Juan Domingo Perón transformed the relationship between the state, organised labour, and mass politics.

The military dictatorship of 1976–1983 carried out systematic repression, torture, and forced disappearances. Democratic government returned in December 1983.

Culture and Economy

Argentina is internationally associated with:

• tango
• literature
• cinema
• football
• beef
• wine
• mate
• publishing

Its economy has major agricultural, mineral, and energy resources but has repeatedly faced inflation, debt crises, currency instability, and political conflict.

Quick Facts

Capital: Buenos Aires
Main language: Spanish
Currency: Argentine peso
Defining landscapes: Pampas, Andes, and Patagonia

Explore Argentina

From Indigenous societies and Spanish colonisation to independence, Peronism, dictatorship, and contemporary political transformation.

Read the Complete Guide to Argentina

Bolivia

Bolivia lies in the central-western part of South America and is one of the continent’s two landlocked countries, together with Paraguay.

Sucre is the constitutional capital, while La Paz is the seat of government and the national legislature. The largest city is Santa Cruz de la Sierra, the economic centre of the eastern lowlands.

Geography

Bolivia contains:

• the Altiplano
• the Andes
• Lake Titicaca
• the Salar de Uyuni
• inter-Andean valleys
• Amazonian forests
• the Gran Chaco
• part of the Pantanal

Tiwanaku, Potosí, and Independence

Tiwanaku was the centre of one of the most influential pre-Columbian civilisations of the southern Andes.

During colonial rule, the Cerro Rico of Potosí became one of the Spanish Empire’s principal sources of silver. Production depended heavily on the forced labour of Indigenous communities.

Bolivia declared independence in 1825 and was named after Simón Bolívar.

Revolution and the Plurinational State

The 1952 National Revolution introduced universal suffrage, agrarian reform, and the nationalisation of the principal tin mines.

In 2005, Evo Morales became the first president to emerge from Bolivia’s Indigenous and trade-union movements. The 2009 Constitution defined Bolivia as a Plurinational State and recognised Spanish and 36 Indigenous languages.

Lithium and Natural Resources

Bolivia has major reserves of gas, tin, silver, zinc, gold, and lithium.

The Salar de Uyuni contains enormous lithium resources. Their development raises questions about water use, industrialisation, environmental protection, state control, foreign investment, and benefits for local communities.

Quick Facts

Capitals: Sucre and La Paz
Main languages: Spanish, Quechua, Aymara, and Guaraní
Geographic condition: Landlocked
Iconic landscape: Salar de Uyuni

Discover Bolivia

Explore Tiwanaku, Potosí, Indigenous cultures, the Plurinational State, the Salar de Uyuni, and the economic challenge of lithium.

Read the Complete Guide to Bolivia

Brazil

Brazil is South America’s largest and most populous country. It occupies almost half of the continent and borders every South American nation except Chile and Ecuador.

Brasília is the capital, while São Paulo is the largest city and primary economic centre. Rio de Janeiro and Salvador remain central to Brazilian history and culture.

Indigenous Peoples and Portuguese Colonisation

Before European arrival, the territory was inhabited by millions of people belonging to hundreds of nations and linguistic groups.

The Portuguese expedition led by Pedro Álvares Cabral reached the coast in 1500. Colonisation initially concentrated on the Atlantic coast and the sugar economy.

Brazil received more enslaved Africans than any other territory in the Americas. Their labour sustained plantations, mining, transport, urban construction, and domestic work.

Independence, Empire, and Abolition

Brazil declared independence in 1822 and remained a monarchy until 1889.

Slavery was abolished in 1888, later than in any other independent American country. Emancipation was not accompanied by land redistribution or sufficient policies for integrating formerly enslaved communities.

Vargas, Dictatorship, and Democracy

In the twentieth century, Getúlio Vargas strengthened central government, promoted industrialisation, and established labour protections while also ruling through an authoritarian regime.

A military coup in 1964 established a dictatorship that lasted until 1985. The Constitution of 1988 expanded political, civil, and social rights.

Economy and the Amazon

Brazil has Latin America’s largest economy, combining:

• agriculture
• manufacturing
• mining
• energy
• finance
• technology
• services

The country holds the largest share of the Amazon rainforest, giving Brazil a central role in global climate and biodiversity policy.

Quick Facts

Capital: Brasília
Official language: Portuguese
Largest city: São Paulo
Iconic biome: Amazon rainforest

Explore Brazil

From Indigenous societies and Portuguese colonisation to slavery, empire, dictatorship, democracy, and the future of the Amazon.

Read the Complete Guide to Brazil

Chile

Chile stretches for more than 4,000 kilometres along South America’s Pacific coast, between the Andes and the ocean.

Its capital, Santiago, is located in the central valley and surrounded by the Andes.

Geography

Chile includes:

• the Atacama Desert
• agricultural valleys
• temperate forests
• the Lake District
• Patagonia
• fjords
• glaciers
• Pacific islands

Indigenous Peoples and Independence

Before Spanish conquest, the territory was home to Aymara, Diaguita, Mapuche, Rapa Nui, Kawésqar, Yagán, and other peoples.

The Mapuche successfully limited colonial control south of the Biobío River for centuries.

Chile’s independence process began in 1810. Military campaigns associated with Bernardo O’Higgins and José de San Martín helped defeat Spanish power.

Allende, Pinochet, and Democracy

In 1970, Salvador Allende became president with a socialist programme.

The military coup of 11 September 1973 brought Augusto Pinochet to power. The dictatorship carried out repression, torture, forced disappearances, and sweeping economic reforms.

Democratic government returned in 1990, but the institutional and economic legacies of the dictatorship continued to shape the country.

Copper, Lithium, and Inequality

Chile is one of the world’s leading copper producers and possesses major lithium resources.

Mineral exports have supported economic growth, while pensions, education, public services, and inequality have generated major social protests.

Quick Facts

Capital: Santiago
Main language: Spanish
Strategic resource: Copper
Iconic landscape: Atacama Desert

Explore Chile

From Indigenous peoples and independence to Salvador Allende, the Pinochet dictatorship, and contemporary democracy.

Read the Complete Guide to Chile

Colombia

Colombia lies in the northwestern corner of South America and is the continent’s only country with coastlines on both the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.

Bogotá is the capital. Other major cities include Medellín, Cali, Cartagena, Barranquilla, and Bucaramanga.

Geography

Colombia contains:

• three Andean mountain branches
• Caribbean coastline
• Pacific coastline
• eastern plains
• Amazon rainforest
• major river valleys

Pre-Columbian Societies and Independence

Before Spanish conquest, the region supported societies such as the Muisca, Tairona, Zenú, and Quimbaya.

The territory became part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of New Granada. Independence was connected to the campaigns of Simón Bolívar and the formation of Gran Colombia.

Political Violence and Armed Conflict

Twentieth-century conflict developed from partisan rivalry, rural inequality, political exclusion, and weak state presence.

From the 1960s, guerrilla organisations such as the FARC and ELN emerged. The conflict later involved government forces, paramilitary organisations, drug traffickers, and criminal groups.

Drug trafficking profoundly transformed and financed the conflict, but it was not its original cause.

Peace and Continuing Violence

In 2016, the government signed a peace agreement with the FARC, leading to the disarmament of the country’s largest guerrilla organisation.

Violence continues in some regions because of the ELN, FARC dissident groups, drug-trafficking networks, and other armed organisations.

Quick Facts

Capital: Bogotá
Main language: Spanish
Coastlines: Caribbean and Pacific
Iconic export: Coffee

Understand Colombia

From La Violencia and the rise of the FARC to drug trafficking, paramilitary organisations, and the 2016 peace agreement.

Read the Pillar Guide to Colombia

Ecuador

Ecuador takes its name from the Equator, which crosses the country just north of Quito.

The country is divided into four major geographic regions:

1. the Coast
2. the Andean Highlands
3. the Amazon
4. the Galápagos Islands

Quito is the political capital, while Guayaquil is the largest city and principal commercial port.

Indigenous Societies and the Inca Empire

Before European conquest, the region contained diverse agricultural and commercial societies.

Parts of present-day Ecuador were incorporated into the Inca Empire near the end of the fifteenth century. Inca control was relatively brief because Spanish conquest began only a few decades later.

Independence and Gran Colombia

Quito was one of the centres of early anti-colonial uprisings.

After independence, Ecuador became part of Gran Colombia with present-day Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama. It became a separate republic in 1830.

Indigenous Movements and the Rights of Nature

Indigenous organisations have played a major role in contemporary politics, particularly during protests over austerity, privatisation, fuel prices, land, and resource extraction.

The 2008 Constitution recognised the rights of nature, giving ecosystems an innovative form of constitutional protection.

Economy

Ecuador’s economy depends on:

• petroleum
• bananas
• shrimp
• cacao
• flowers
• mining
• tourism
• remittances

The country adopted the United States dollar in 2000 following a severe financial crisis.

Quick Facts

Capital: Quito
Largest city: Guayaquil
Main language: Spanish
Iconic archipelago: Galápagos Islands

Discover Ecuador

From Andean civilisations and Spanish colonialism to Indigenous movements, the Galápagos, and the oil economy.

Read the Complete Guide to Ecuador

Guyana

Guyana lies on South America’s northeastern Atlantic coast and borders Venezuela, Brazil, and Suriname.

It is the continent’s only sovereign country with English as its official language, although Guyanese Creole is widely spoken in everyday life.

The capital, Georgetown, is also home to the headquarters of the Caribbean Community.

A South American and Caribbean Identity

Guyana is geographically South American, but its British colonial history, English language, plantation economy, and multicultural population connect it strongly to the Caribbean.

Its population includes people of Indigenous, African, Indian, mixed, Chinese, Portuguese, and European ancestry.

Colonisation and Independence

The Dutch and British controlled the region at different times. Plantation agriculture depended on the labour of enslaved Africans.

After emancipation, indentured workers arrived mainly from British India.

Guyana became independent from the United Kingdom in 1966 and a republic in 1970.

Petroleum and the Essequibo Dispute

Major offshore petroleum deposits were discovered in 2015, and commercial production began in 2019.

The use and distribution of petroleum revenue now represent the country’s most important economic and institutional challenge.

A large region administered by Guyana, known as Essequibo, is claimed by Venezuela.

Quick Facts

Capital: Georgetown
Official language: English
Iconic natural site: Kaieteur Falls
Transformative resource: Offshore petroleum

Discover Guyana

Explore its colonial history, Kaieteur Falls, multicultural society, the Essequibo dispute, and the oil boom transforming the economy.

Read the Complete Guide to Guyana

Paraguay

Paraguay lies between Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil and has no direct access to the ocean.

The Paraguay River divides the country into:

• the more populous and agricultural eastern region
• the larger but sparsely populated Chaco

Asunción is the capital and one of the oldest Spanish-founded cities in South America.

Guaraní and National Identity

Paraguay is one of the world’s most significant examples of national bilingualism.

Spanish and Guaraní are official languages. Guaraní is spoken by much of the population, including people who do not identify as Indigenous.

The language is widely used in family life, music, media, electoral politics, and everyday communication.

The War of the Triple Alliance

Between 1864 and 1870, Paraguay fought Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay.

The war caused enormous loss of life, destruction, and long-term economic and demographic consequences.

The Chaco War and Dictatorship

Paraguay fought Bolivia in the Chaco War between 1932 and 1935.

The dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner lasted from 1954 until 1989 and was characterised by repression, political control, and cooperation with other South American dictatorships.

Agriculture and Hydroelectricity

The modern economy depends heavily on:

• soy
• cattle
• agriculture
• cross-border trade
• hydroelectricity

The Itaipú Dam, shared with Brazil, is one of the world’s most important hydroelectric facilities.

Quick Facts

Capital: Asunción
Official languages: Spanish and Guaraní
Geographic condition: Landlocked
Strategic resource: Hydroelectric power

Explore Paraguay

From Guaraní culture and the War of the Triple Alliance to dictatorship, democracy, agriculture, and Itaipú.

Read the Complete Guide to Paraguay

Peru

Peru lies on South America’s Pacific coast and contains three broad geographic regions:

• the Coast
• the Andes
• the Amazon

Lima is the political and economic capital. Cusco retains exceptional importance in Andean history.

Civilisations Before the Inca

The territory supported many major cultures, including:

• Caral
• Chavín
• Paracas
• Nazca
• Moche
• Wari
• Chimú

These societies developed cities, irrigation systems, monumental architecture, textile production, trade networks, and metallurgy.

The Inca Empire

During the fifteenth century, the Inca created an empire extending across a large portion of the Andes.

Cusco was the political and symbolic centre of Tawantinsuyu. An extensive road system connected distant territories and enabled the movement of armies, officials, goods, and information.

Spanish Conquest and Colonial Rule

Francisco Pizarro captured the Inca ruler Atahualpa in 1532.

Lima later became the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru and one of the principal centres of Spanish power in the Americas.

Independence and Contemporary Society

José de San Martín declared independence in 1821. It was consolidated through the campaigns of Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre.

Modern Peru has a strong Quechua and Aymara presence and cultural traditions shaped by Indigenous, European, African, Chinese, and Japanese influences.

Its economy depends on mining, agriculture, fishing, tourism, and services, while deep inequalities persist between the Coast, Andes, and Amazon.

Quick Facts

Capital: Lima
Main languages: Spanish, Quechua, and Aymara
Former Inca capital: Cusco
Iconic site: Machu Picchu

Discover Peru

From Caral and Nazca to the Inca Empire, Spanish conquest, independence, and contemporary multicultural society.

Read the Complete Guide to Peru

Suriname

Suriname lies between Guyana, Brazil, and French Guiana.

Paramaribo is the capital, and Dutch is the official language. Other widely spoken languages include:

• Sranan Tongo
• Sarnami Hindustani
• Surinamese Javanese
• Maroon languages
• Indigenous languages
• English
• Portuguese

A Multicultural Society

Suriname’s population includes Indigenous peoples, Maroons, Creoles, people of Indian and Javanese ancestry, Chinese communities, Europeans, and people of mixed heritage.

This diversity developed through colonisation, slavery, indentured labour, and later migration.

Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, African-derived religions, and Indigenous spiritual traditions coexist within the country.

Colonisation and Independence

The territory was controlled first by the English and later by the Dutch.

The colonial economy depended on plantations and the forced labour of enslaved Africans. After abolition, contract workers arrived from British India and Java.

Suriname became independent from the Netherlands in 1975 and entered an authoritarian period after the 1980 military coup.

Forests, Gold, and Petroleum

More than 90% of Suriname is covered by forest.

The economy depends heavily on gold, mining, services, and natural resources. The GranMorgu offshore project is expected to begin large-scale petroleum production in 2028.

Quick Facts

Capital: Paramaribo
Official language: Dutch
Environmental characteristic: Extensive forest cover
Emerging resource: Offshore petroleum

Discover Suriname

From Dutch colonisation and multicultural society to rainforest conservation, gold, and the emerging offshore petroleum industry.

Read the Complete Guide to Suriname

Uruguay

Uruguay lies between Argentina and Brazil and faces the Atlantic Ocean and the Río de la Plata.

Montevideo is the capital and contains a significant share of the national population and economic activity.

The country is mostly composed of plains and rolling grasslands suited to cattle ranching and agriculture.

Colonial Frontier and Independence

The territory was disputed for centuries by Spain and Portugal.

During the nineteenth century, it became a contested area between Brazil and the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. Its independence was recognised in 1828.

Social Reform

At the beginning of the twentieth century, José Batlle y Ordóñez promoted reforms based on:

• secular government
• public education
• labour protection
• social welfare
• state-owned companies
• economic regulation

These policies helped create a highly urbanised and literate society.

Dictatorship and Democracy

Uruguay was governed by a civil-military dictatorship between 1973 and 1985.

Democratic restoration was followed by relative institutional stability, expansion of civil rights, and major investment in renewable energy.

Culture

Uruguayan culture is closely associated with mate, carnival, murga, candombe, tango, football, and the literary traditions of the Río de la Plata.

Quick Facts

Capital: Montevideo
Main language: Spanish
Cultural region: Río de la Plata
Historical economic activity: Cattle ranching

Explore Uruguay

From colonial rivalry and social reform to dictatorship, democratic recovery, civil rights, and renewable energy.

Read the Complete Guide to Uruguay

Venezuela

Venezuela occupies the northern edge of South America and faces the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean.

Caracas is the capital.

Its territory includes:

• Caribbean coastline
• the Andes
• the Llanos
• the Orinoco Delta
• the Guiana Highlands
• Amazonian areas

Independence and Simón Bolívar

Venezuela was a Spanish colony and one of the principal centres of South America’s independence movements.

Simón Bolívar was born in Caracas and led campaigns that contributed to the independence of several territories.

Venezuela initially formed part of Gran Colombia before becoming a separate republic in 1830.

Petroleum Transformation

The development of petroleum resources transformed Venezuela during the twentieth century.

Oil exports financed urban growth, public spending, imports, and infrastructure. They also created a deep dependence on hydrocarbons and weakened other productive sectors.

Chávez, Maduro, and the Contemporary Crisis

Hugo Chávez was elected in 1998 and launched the Bolivarian Revolution, which introduced a new Constitution, social programmes, nationalisations, and a stronger state role in the economy.

After Chávez died in 2013, Nicolás Maduro became president.

The country subsequently experienced:

• economic contraction
• inflation
• declining oil production
• mass migration
• international sanctions
• political polarisation
• electoral disputes
• deterioration of public services

Quick Facts

Capital: Caracas
Main language: Spanish
Strategic resource: Petroleum
Major river: Orinoco

Understand Venezuela

From Simón Bolívar and independence to the petroleum economy, the Bolivarian Revolution, and the contemporary crisis.

Read the Complete Guide to Venezuela

Is French Guiana a South American Country?

French Guiana is geographically part of South America, but it is not a sovereign state.

It is an overseas department and region of France. Its inhabitants are French and European Union citizens, and its official currency is the euro.

Cayenne is the capital, while Kourou is home to the Guiana Space Centre.

French Guiana therefore has a distinctive status: it is geographically South American, politically French, and institutionally part of the European Union.

Explore French Guiana

Discover its colonial history, Indigenous and Maroon communities, the Guiana Space Centre, and its unique political status.

Read the Guide to French Guiana

The Capitals of South America

The capitals of the 12 sovereign countries are:

• Argentina: Buenos Aires
• Bolivia: Sucre, with the government based in La Paz
• Brazil: Brasília
• Chile: Santiago
• Colombia: Bogotá
• Ecuador: Quito
• Guyana: Georgetown
• Paraguay: Asunción
• Peru: Lima
• Suriname: Paramaribo
• Uruguay: Montevideo
• Venezuela: Caracas

Bolivia is the notable exception because Sucre is the constitutional capital, while La Paz is the administrative and legislative centre.

Languages Spoken in South America

Spanish is the official or predominant language in most sovereign states.

Portuguese is the official language of Brazil, which alone contains almost half of the continent’s population.

Other official languages include:

• English in Guyana
• Dutch in Suriname
• French in French Guiana

The continent is also home to hundreds of Indigenous languages. The most widely spoken or institutionally recognised include:

• Quechua
• Aymara
• Guaraní
• Mapudungun
• Warao
• Arawak languages
• Carib languages
• Tupi languages
• Panoan languages
• Macro-Jê languages

Guaraní has official status in Paraguay and is widely spoken by Indigenous and non-Indigenous citizens. Bolivia’s Constitution recognises 36 Indigenous languages alongside Spanish.

The Largest Economies in South America

Brazil has the continent’s largest economy, supported by its internal market, service sector, industry, agriculture, mining, and energy production.

Argentina, Colombia, Chile, and Peru also have major regional economies, although their productive structures differ considerably.

Agriculture

Important products include:

• soy
• coffee
• maize
• sugar
• beef
• wine
• cacao
• bananas
• fruit
• fish and seafood

Mining

South America contains large reserves of:

• copper
• lithium
• iron ore
• gold
• silver
• tin
• zinc
• bauxite

Chile and Peru are major copper producers. Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile form the region commonly known as the lithium triangle.

Petroleum and Natural Gas

Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana, Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Suriname possess major petroleum or natural-gas resources.

Guyana is experiencing exceptional growth from offshore production, while Suriname is preparing for the start of large-scale offshore development.

Services and Technology

São Paulo, Buenos Aires, Santiago, Bogotá, Montevideo, and other cities host expanding financial, professional, technological, creative, and digital sectors.

The Main Challenges Facing South America

Inequality

South America continues to experience major differences in income, education, healthcare, housing, sanitation, and access to professional opportunities.

Dependence on Commodities

Many national economies depend heavily on agricultural, mining, and energy exports. This makes public revenue and economic growth vulnerable to international price changes.

Environmental Protection

Major environmental challenges include:

• deforestation
• wildfires
• illegal mining
• river pollution
• glacier retreat
• biodiversity loss
• intensive agriculture
• climate change

Indigenous Rights

Indigenous communities continue to demand:

• territorial recognition
• protection of languages
• political participation
• access to public services
• protection from illegal extraction
• consultation on major infrastructure projects

Organised Crime

Drug trafficking, illegal mining, smuggling, human trafficking, and weapons networks cross national borders and challenge states and local communities.

Political Stability

Polarisation, corruption, weak party systems, and declining trust in political institutions affect several South American democracies.

Regional Integration

South American countries cooperate through organisations such as:

• Mercosur
• the Andean Community
• CARICOM
• the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization

Political and economic differences have nevertheless made sustained regional integration difficult.

Why the Countries of South America Matter

Studying the continent country by country makes it possible to move beyond the idea of Latin America as a uniform cultural space.

Argentina and Uruguay share a Río de la Plata identity but developed different political systems. Bolivia and Peru retain deep Andean and Indigenous traditions, while Ecuador combines the Coast, Andes, Amazon, and Galápagos Islands.

Brazil and Colombia are major demographic and economic powers, but they were colonised by different European empires and developed distinct languages and institutions.

Guyana and Suriname demonstrate that South America is not exclusively Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking. Paraguay is a unique example of widespread national bilingualism, while Chile and Venezuela illustrate different forms of dependence on strategic natural resources.

Understanding the countries of South America therefore means examining the relationship between:

• geography and political power
• natural resources and inequality
• culture and migration
• colonialism and national identity
• environment and economic development
• memory and democracy

Conclusion

South America comprises 12 sovereign states and an extraordinary variety of peoples, languages, cultures, economic systems, and political institutions.

Its countries share major historical experiences, including Indigenous civilisations, European colonisation, African slavery, independence movements, migration, military authoritarianism, and democratic transition.

These shared experiences did not create identical nations.

Brazil retains a distinct Portuguese legacy. Guyana and Suriname connect the continent to the Caribbean. Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador preserve strong Andean and Indigenous traditions. Argentina and Uruguay belong to the Río de la Plata cultural space, while Chile and Colombia are shaped by their relationships with both the Andes and the ocean.

National borders do not completely separate the continent’s major processes. The Andes, Amazon, Pantanal, Gran Chaco, Pampas, Patagonia, and Río de la Plata Basin cross political frontiers and require international cooperation.

This guide is therefore a starting point. Each national CTA leads to a dedicated pillar article exploring the country’s history, politics, economy, population, culture, environment, and contemporary transformation.

Frequently Asked Questions About South America